Human Biology Ch.2 Section 3

Life processes produce waste.During the process of respiration and digestion, waste materials are produced and several systems in your body remove wastes.

•The urinary system disposes of liquid waste products removed from the blood.
•The respiratory system disposes of water vapor and waste gases from the blood.
•The digestive system disposes of solid waste products from food.
•The skin releases wastes through sweat glands.

Human Biology Ch.2 Section 2

The body needs energy and materials.Most of what you need comes from nutrients within food.
Nutrients are important substances that enable the body to move, grow and maintain homeostasis.
•Water – It is necessary for all living things.
•Protein – It is material that the body uses for growth and repair. (Cells are built of proteins)
•Carbohydrates – It make up cellulose, which helps move materials through the digestive system.
•Fat – It stores energy.

*Before your body can use these nutrients, digestive system transforms the energy and materials in food into forms your body can use.

The digestive system moves & breaks down food
Digestive system is process of breaking down food into usable materials.

Through muscular action called peristalsis, material is moved through the wavelike contractions of smooth muscles.
Mucous glands throughout system keep the material moist and muscles contract to push the material along.


Organs outside of the digestive tract, such as the pancreas, liver, and gall bladder, also aid in digestion by producing or concentrating important chemicals.Liver•The largest internal organ.
•Filters blood, cleansing it of harmful substances and stores unneeded nutrients for later use in the body.
•It produces bile to break down fats.
Gallbladder-A tiny pear shaped sac connected to the liver. Bile produced in the liver is stored and concentrated in the gallbladder. The bile is then secreted into the small intestine.
Pancreas- It produces chemicals that are needed as materials move between the two. The pancreas lowers the acidity in the small intestine and breaks down proteins, fats and starch.

S.S. Ch.6 Lesson 1

Chapter 6 Lesson 1
Beginnings of the Hebrew People

Abraham
Abraham founded Judaism,
the religion of the Jewish people.
Judaism was the first
religion based on
monotheism, or the
worship of only one God.

The Torah, the oldest religious writings of Jewish people , is part of the Hebrew bible, or Tanakh
The story of the Hebrews begin with Abraham, or Abram, who was born in Mesopotamia

Abram left Mesopotamia with his family to Canaan after God had spoke to him.
In Canaan, God made a covenant (a special agreement) with Abram saying that Canaan would belong to Abram if he agreed to worship God alone
Abram changed his named to Abraham which means, father of many

The Israelites
The Bible tells the story of Abraham’s descendents. It describes how famine struck Canaan and each of Jacob’s 12 sons led separate tribe into Egypt, where the Israelites lived for 400 years, part of the time as slaves.

Abraham’s son named Isaac had a son named Jacob
Jacob became to be known as Israel had 12 sons
Joseph was the most loved out of all this sons
Joseph was sold to traders and went to Egypt
In Egypt, Joseph grew to power, second to the pharoah

Famine struck Canaan and Joseph’s brothers went to Egypt
They reunited and the whole family moved to Egypt
Each son held a separate tribe or group of descendents
Because the Pharaoh feared that the Israelites might gain power, he enslaved them

Moses and the Exodus
The Bible tells how the Israelites
obtained freedom from Egypt.
It describes how Moses guided
the Israelites during the Exodus
and how he received the
Ten Commandments from God.

When Moses was born, Israelites were slaves
The pharaoh ordered all Israelite baby boy drown in the Nile.
Moses mother put him in a basket and set him afloat where the pharaoh’s daughter rescued and raised him

God told Moses to demand freedom for Israelites but the pharaoh refused
God sent ten plagues….

Exodus
The Israelites’ mass departure is know as the Exodus
“large movement of people”
After Egypt, they traveled on the Sinai Peninsula along the Red Sea
They wandered for 40 years
Moses and the Exodus
God spoke to the Israelites at Mount Sinai and gave Moses the Ten Commandments
The Ten Commandments gave rules for responsible behavior and worshipping God properly.

Human Biology Ch.2 Section 1

The respiratory system interacts with the environment and with other body systems.
The two main functions of respiratory system:
•It functions to get oxygen from the environment.
•It removes carbon dioxide and other waste products from your body.

The continuous process of moving & using oxygen involves mechanical movement and chemical reactions.
• * Air is transported into your lungs by mechanical movements
• * Oxygen is used during chemical reactions that release
• energy in your cells.

Exchanging Oxygen & Carbon Dioxide
Without oxygen, cells in the body die quickly.
The air that you breathe contains about 20% oxygen and less than 1% carbon dioxide. Almost 80% is nitrogen gas.
The air that you breathe out contains more carbon dioxide and less oxygen.
In order to maintain homeostasis, cells and tissues needs proper levels of both oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Cellular Respiration
Inside your cells, a process called cellular respiration uses oxygen
in chemical reactions that release energy.
•Cellular respiration requires glucose, or sugars, and oxygen to release energy. These materials are transported to every cell in your body through blood vessels.
•Carbon dioxide is a waste product of the process because they must be removed from cell.

Structures in the respiratory system function together
The respiratory system is made up of many structures that allow you to move air in and out of your body, communicate, and keep out harmful materials.

Nose, Throat, Trachea, and Lungs
-When you inhale through your nose, tiny hairs called cilia and a sticky liquid called mucus help filter air by trapping particles such as dirt. -> oxygen then passes through trachea (epiglottis keeps air from entering your stomach ) and trachea splits into two smaller tubes -> bronchial tubes-> lungs . Bronchial tubes branch throughout the lungs into smaller tubes. At the end out the smallest tubes, air enters tiny and thin air sacs called alveoli.
-Oxygen passes from inside the alveoli through the thin walls

Ribs and Diaphragm
-The rib cage encloses a space inside your body called thoracic cavity.
-The diaphragm stretches across the floor of the thoracic cavity.
When you inhale, it contracts and pulls downward.
When the diaphragm and other muscles relax, the process reverses and you exhale.

Speaking and other respiratory movements.
•Air moving over your vocal cords (folds of tissue in the larynx or the voice box) allows you to produce sound.
• When you speak, the vocal cords become tight, squeeze together, and force air from the lungs to move between them.
•The air causes the vocal cords to vibrate and produce sound

Human Biology 1.3 The muscular system makes movement possible.

Muscles perform important functions
They produce movement,
keep body temperature stable and maintain posture.

Movement
The muscular system works with the skeletal system to allow movement.
The muscles are made up of individual cells called muscle fibers which contract and relax.
Most of the muscles work in pairs. As they contract, muscles shorten. They do not push but pull in one direction, while another muscle relaxes.
Muscles are attached to bones by
stretchy connective tissue.

Maintaining Body Temperature
•When muscles contract, they release heat. Without this heat from muscle contraction, the body could not maintain its normal temperature.

Maintaining Posture

•Muscles work against gravity.
•Most muscles in your body are always a little bit contracted.
•The muscles that maintain posture relax completely only when you are unconscious.


Skeletal Muscle (Voluntary muscles)
-Attached to your skeleton.
-Perform voluntary movement.
-Made out of long fibers which are
made up of many smaller bundles.
(slow twitch muscles, fast twitch muscles)
Together, the skeletal muscles work
with your bones to give your body power and strength

Smooth Muscle (involuntary muscles)
-Found inside organs such as intestines or the stomach.
- Smooth muscles are not fast twitch. They contract slowly.

Cardiac Muscle (involuntary muscles)
-Found only in heart
-A special group of cells within the heart are known as the pacemaker of the heart because it controls the heartbeat

Humans develop muscular coordination and become more graceful in their movements.
When you exercise regularly, your muscles may get bigger. Exercise also stimulates growth of individual muscle cells, making them larger.
During exercise, chemicals can build up in the muscles and make them cramp or ache.
The muscle soreness after exercise is caused by damage to the muscle fibers.

Human Biology Ch.1.2

Made up of a strong connective tissue called bone, the skeletal system
serves as the anchor for all of the body’s movement, provides
support, and protects soft organs inside the body.


Long bones: found in the arms and legs.
Short bones: found in the feet and hands.
Irregular bones: found in the spine.
Flat bones: found in the ribs and skull.

* Compact Bone
Surrounding the spongy, inner layer of the bone.
It covers the outside of most bones and functions as the basic supportive tissue of the body, the part of the body you call the skeleton.
* Spongy Bone
Inside the bone, the calcium network is less dense. It is strong, and lightweight. Spongy bone makes up most of the short, flat, irregular bones, and the ends of long bones.

The Axial Skeleton is the part of the skeleton that forms the axis. (including head, spine, and ribs)
* The skull, the cranium, protects the brain and they do not move.
* The skull connects to the spinal column which makes up the main portion of the axial skeleton. Many bones in spinal column, vertebrae, allows the flexibility.
* The rib bones function to protect the soft internal organs.

The Appendicular Skeleton function mainly to allow movement. (includes arms, shoulders, hips and legs)

•The upper arm bone connects to the shoulder and it connects with the two bones of the lower arm.
•The lower part of the body, the legs and the hip bones, bears all of the body’s weight when you are standing.

Infancy: A newborn’s skull has spaces between them. During the growth of the skull, the spaces between the bones close.

Childhood: Bone growth occurs at growth plates which are made out of cartilage.
Adolescence: At the end of adolescence, the growth plate become hard and bones stop growing.

Adulthood: As people age, more bone is broken down than is formed. (Decrease in bone mass and density.)

Three types of joints are:
•Immovable- locks bones together like puzzle pieces.
•Slightly movable- able to flex slightly. (ribs are connected to your sternum by slightly movable joints)
•Freely movable – allow your body to bend and to move. The entire joint is surrounded by connective tissue.
Movable joints can be classified by the type of movement they produce. (Angular movement: a hinge joint, Rotational movement: a ball and socket joint)

S.S. Ch.5 Lesson 2

Kush Conquers Egypt The Kushite leader Piye brought all of Egypt under Kushite control.
Kushite pharaohs ruled Egypt from about 730 B.C. to 671 B.C.
The Kushites began to regain control and built a new
capital city farther south on the Nile called Napata
In this region, they were free from Egypt’s rule

780 B.C., Nubian king named Alara started a new dynasty of
Kushite kings called the Kingdom of Napata.

King Kashta followed his brother Alara as Kush’s leader

Piye, son of Kashta, conquered and brought all of Egypt under Kushite control
Shabaka, Piye’s brother claimed the throne after his death

Dynasty 25 is also known as Kushite dynasty
Taharqa is the most successful pharaoh of dynasty 25

Kushite pharaohs helped restore Egypt
They also rebuilt temples and built new ones

A New Beginning
Assyrians invaded Egypt and defeated the Kushite and Egyptian armies.
After moving their capital to Meroe, the Kushites rebuilt their kingdom.
The Kushites rule came to an end Assyrians destroyed Kushite and Egyptian armies

Taharqa retreated to Napata and died there Assyrians plundered and robbed Napata

From defeat, the Kushites learned iron-making techniques

In 591 B.C., Kushite leaders moved their capital near the sixth cataract to Meroe and rebuilt their kingdom Kingdom of Meroe

270 B.C. to A.D. 350- the Meroitic Period
Built temples for gods and pyramids for rulers
Created new customs
Became known for trade

The City of Meroe Meroe became the wealthy center of a vast trade network.
The people of Meroe developed a written language to keep trade records
Meroe sat on the Nile River and was at the meeting point for several trade routes
Kushites traded gold, cattle, cotton and wheat as well as iron products

Kushites gained much knowledge from the Assyrians about iron-making
Meroitic alphabet 23 symbols to represent sound
Trade helped Meroe grow wealthy resulting in the building of new temples, palaces, and pyramids Rulers claimed to be the sons of god, Amon

Meroe woman were important in governing Right to rule was passed down from queen and not the king
-Amani-Shakete Led army against Roman army

Fall Of Meroe Meroe lost it’s influence as traders began to use sea routes.
Then Axum defeated Kush.
Greek rulers had ports built on the Red Sea People no longer traveled on land through Meroe to trade Instead they used the sea The kingdom of Axum began to raid Kushite towns, resulting in their downfall

Human Biology Ch.1.1 The human body is complex

How is the human body like a city?
-The skeletal system, like the framework of a building, provides support.
-The digestive system works with the respiratory system to provide energy and materials.

The five levels of organization in our body are:
Cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, and the organism. The individual cell captures and releases energy, uses materials, and grows.

* The cells are specialized for complex organisms.
Specialized cells perform specific jobs.
Cells must be organized in a tissue and human body contains several types of tissues.

Four main groups of tissues are classified into their function: Epithelial tissue, nerve tissue, muscle tissue, and connective tissue.

•Epithelial tissue: Covers all of the inner and outer surfaces of body.
•Nerve tissue: Carry electrical impulses between brain and the various parts of body in response to changing conditions. (messaging system)
•Muscle tissue: functions in movement. (muscle cells contract, or shorten, and then relax)
•Connective tissue: functions to hold parts of the body together. Provides support, protection, strength, padding, and insulation. (ex. Tendons & ligaments hold bones and muscles together.)

A structure that is made up of two or more types of tissue that work together to carry out a function in the body. Organ system is a group of organs that together perform a function that helps the body meet its needs for energy and materials.

The body’s systems interact with one another. The body’s many levels of organization, from cells to organ systems, work constantly to maintain the balance needed for the survival of the organism. The ability of your body to maintain internal conditions is called homeostasis.

S.S. Ch.5 Lesson 1

Egypt and Nubia developed political, cultural, and commercial relationships.
Like the Egyptians, the Nubians depended on the Nile, although cataracts made travel on the upper Nile difficult.

Nubia stretched from southern border of Egypt to the city of Khartoum in Sudan

Egypt and Nubia were neighbors so they shared ideas, customs, and commercial, political, and cultural relationships.
However, the two lands were very different in geograpghy The Nubians were pastoral nomads who herded cattle.
Many Nubians turned such resources as gold and clay into jewelry, pottery, and other valuable trade items.

Nubia had plenty of copper, gold, granite, iron, and clay Nubians used pottery for numerous purposes In time, it became of fine quality and so they became valuable trade items Nubia imported goods from the south and exported them to the north. Egyptians wanted to control Nubian trade routes, so they annexed northern Nubia. Nubia’s location made it an ideal place for trade They imported from the south Leopard skins, ostrich eggs, Feathers, Ivory, Ebony, Spices, gold Nubia exported these items to the north because it was in great demand in southwest Asia The Egyptians wanted to control Nubia’s trade routes because they were rich with gold. Egyptians used Nubian gold to build statues and decorations They began looting Nubia’s natural resources In 2000 B.C., the Egyptian king annexed northern Nubia By annexing Nubia, the Egyptians gained Nubian resources and Nubian soldiers Egyptians used Nubian gold lavishley to construct statues and decorations; they used Nubian granite for statues and buildings A powerful new kingdom arose in southern Nubia. It gained independence and drove out the Egyptians. Its capital and center of trade was Kerma.

Later, Egyptians regained control of much Nubia. Kush Kingdom of Kerma Regained independence from Egypt Kerma became a major center for trade Gold, salt, spices, elephant tusks, and rhinoceros horns This trade made Kerma wealthy Kushite kings gained control of northern Nubia, while the Hyksos controlled northern Egypt To protect their kingdom from invasion, the Kushite king became an ally of the Hyksos Egyptians forced Hyksos back to soutwestern Asia and then destroyed Kerma Following military success, Egyptians controlled much of Nubia as far as the 4th cataract The pharaoh created a position “King’s son of Kush” Many Kushites adopted Egyptian religious beliefs, writing, customs, and ways of dressing.

S.S. Ch.4 Lesson 4

During the New Kingdom, Egyptian kings took the title of pharoh, and the Egyptian Empire reached its greatest size.

—The New Kingdom began in 1552 B.C., with the rule of Dynasty 18
—Pharoh means “great house”
—Power of pharoh was based on gold because Egyptians believed the gods flesh was made of gold
—Egypt conquered parts of Nubia, which was rich on gold
—Nubia was also called Kush

Queen Hatshepsut
one of few woman to rule Demanded all conquered lands to pay tribute in exchange for protection Set out trading expeditions across the Red Sea They returned with animal skins, myrrh trees, ebony, and gold

Thutmose III
Reached greatest size under Thutmose III By 1450 B.C., Egypt controlled lands from the 4th cataract in Nubia to the Euphrates River in southwestern Asia They built the largest temple, the temple of Amon-Ra at Karnak. —

Amenhotep IV and his wife, Nefertiti
brought change to Egypt Abandoned the worship of Egyptian gods except one, Aton (god of the sun) Amenhotep was so devoted he changed his name to Akhenaton, “servant of the Aton” Changed capital city to Akhetaten

—After Akhenaton’s death, advisor’s for Tutankhaton pressured him to restore old Egyptian gods and changed his name to Tutankhamen, or “living image of Amon”

Ramses the Great
During his power, he… Defended Egypt and made it prosperous Fought the Hittites Built magnificent temples

Egyptian society followed a structure similar to that of a pyramid. The pharoh was at the top. Below were the royal family, priests, and nobles. Next were craftworkers, scribes, and merchants. The largest class included farmers and unskilled workers. Slaves were at the bottom of society. Art, literature, and architecture were important in ancient Egypt.

Most of the monumental architecture that remains today was built of stone, although the main construction material for other buildings was mud and brick.
—Pyramids, temples, and government buildings were built of stone.
—Other buildings such as houses were built of mud brick
—Over time, ruler’s stopped building pyramids because they were too expensive to build.

As a result, they pharohs and their families, and wealthy nobles were buried in tombs cut into rock walls.
—Temples such as those at Luxor and Karnak took centuries to build. Most Egyptian temples followed a similar design. Long path lined with sphinxes leading to a gate Through the gates was a courtyard, and led to a long hall that represented the “swamp of creation.”
—Most Egyptian art was very formal
—Many tomb painting showed dancing and music(instruments)